Files, formats and backups
Codecs, image formats, backup strategy and moving large files around without losing them.
Storage decisions are hard to reverse once a library is large. A format chosen for convenience can outlive the software that reads it, and a drive formatted for one operating system can become read-only on the next machine it is plugged into.
These guides cover what each format and file system actually guarantees, what backup and encryption do and do not protect against, and what the alternatives cost per terabyte per year. Start with the 3-2-1 rule if nothing is backed up yet.
Archive formats and compression: what actually decides the choice
Ratio is the least useful number for picking an archive format. What tar, zip, zstd, xz, 7z and dedup backup really cost, with primary sources.
Bit rot, checksums, and the copy nobody checked
Silent disk corruption is measured, rare and widely misquoted. The commoner failure is an unverified copy. The studies, and the commands that catch both.
Cloud storage versus a NAS: the honest cost comparison
Verified July 2026 prices per TB per year for B2, Wasabi, iDrive e2, R2, iCloud and Microsoft 365, set against NAS power draw and real break-even in years.
Data recovery: what works, what makes it worse
Why stopping every write matters most, how TRIM makes SSD deletion permanent, when DIY recovery software is safe to run, and what a clean-room lab costs.
Encrypting drives and files: BitLocker, FileVault, LUKS and VeraCrypt
Disk encryption protects a laptop that is powered off, not one you are logged into. What BitLocker, FileVault, LUKS and VeraCrypt cost you in access risk.
JPEG, PNG, WebP, AVIF and HEIC: which format when
AVIF for web photos with a JPEG fallback, PNG for screenshots, WebP if you want one format, and HEIC only inside Apple, because no other browser reads it.
NTFS, exFAT, APFS and ext4: which file system for which drive
exFAT is the only format current Windows, macOS and Linux all mount read-write, which is why it wins for shared drives. NTFS, ext4 and APFS compared.
PDF/A and archiving: what your PDF actually contains
A PDF may hold real text or only a picture of text, and the difference decides whether it is searchable. What PDF/A fixes, and what OCR only guesses.
Password managers and two-factor authentication, practically
The July 2025 NIST rules changed what a password must be, SMS is the standard's one restricted authenticator, and how to get back in if you lose a key.
Photo metadata and organizing a library that survives
Exif, IPTC and XMP each hold different things. Why photo dates break when you copy or convert files, and how to build a library that outlives the app.
RAID levels, and the one failure they actually cover
What each RAID level survives, why the rebuild window is the real risk, an honest look at the unrecoverable read error argument, and why none of it is a backup.
SSD vs HDD: speed, endurance, and how drives actually fail
SSD endurance ratings, hard drive failure rates, the SMART values worth watching, and why an SSD is the wrong place to park data you plan to power off.
Sending large files: the practical options compared
Real size ceilings and expiry windows for email, WeTransfer, Dropbox Transfer, cloud drives and self-hosted tools, plus which ones actually encrypt.
The 3-2-1 backup rule, applied to a normal household
Three copies, two media, one off-site, plus why sync and RAID are neither. Real retention windows, 2026 storage prices and a plan that costs $99 a year.
USB standards decoded: the speeds behind the marketing names
USB-IF now recommends just five consumer speed names, USB 5Gbps up to USB 80Gbps. Here is what USB4, Thunderbolt and a plain USB-C cable really guarantee.
Video formats and codecs: MP4, MKV, H.264, H.265 and AV1
MP4 and MKV are containers, H.264 and AV1 are codecs inside them, and hardware decode support rather than the file extension decides whether a video plays.
